Everything below concerns WADA Prohibited List. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2025-09-09. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Stability of GW501516 depends on form, temperature, light exposure, and moisture. Solid reference material is typically stored frozen or refrigerated in a desiccator and protected from light. Solutions in organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide are often kept frozen in aliquots to reduce freeze-thaw cycling. Aqueous solubility is low, so aqueous stock solutions can be difficult to prepare without cosolvents. Degradation may appear as changes in chromatographic purity or mass spectral signal. Stability studies are needed to establish shelf life for any specific preparation.
Quality assessment for cardarine samples usually combines identity, purity, and impurity testing. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and mass spectrometry can confirm molecular structure, while high-performance liquid chromatography estimates purity. Certificates of analysis from testing laboratories may list these results, but they do not establish safety or legality. In the absence of approved manufacturing, products sold online may contain the wrong compound, variable amounts, or unlisted contaminants. Independent verification is therefore central to analytical work and to interpreting any reported biological activity.
Laboratory detection of GW501516 commonly uses liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. The method can identify the parent compound or its metabolites in urine and blood after sample cleanup. Protein precipitation, solid-phase extraction, or enzymatic hydrolysis may precede analysis, depending on the matrix. Reference standards are required for accurate quantification and confirmation. Because the compound is not approved, testing often occurs in anti-doping, forensic, or research settings rather than routine clinical care. Results are reported with limits of detection and quantification.
Human trials of GW501516 were small and short in duration. They examined lipid levels, glucose handling, and other metabolic markers, but the programs were halted after the animal cancer findings. No approved therapeutic product exists, and published human data are insufficient for establishing long-term safety. Reports of use for athletic performance come mainly from non-clinical settings and cannot be verified through controlled trials. Independent testing of products sold as cardarine has found inconsistent purity and labeling.
Laboratory studies indicate that GW501516 activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy metabolism. In rodent experiments, treated animals often showed increased endurance and reduced fat mass. These effects were observed under controlled conditions and do not establish safe or effective use in humans. The exact dose-response relationship in humans remains poorly characterized. Species differences in metabolism can affect how results translate across animals and people.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Common for reference-grade material. |
| Solubility | Low in water | Dissolves in DMSO and some organic solvents. |
| Typical storage | -20 °C, desiccated | Protect from light and moisture. |
| Analytical method | LC-MS/MS | Used for trace detection in biological matrices. |
| Purity assessment | HPLC with UV detection | Often combined with NMR and mass spectrometry. |
Clinical development stopped after rodent studies showed tumors at multiple sites. Whether those findings predict human cancer risk remains an open question, but they led sponsors to discontinue programs. Human safety data are limited to small, short-term studies that were not designed to assess cancer risk. Reported effects in those studies included changes in blood lipids, but the evidence is insufficient for medical use. Long-term consequences of nonmedical use are not well characterized. Questions about dose, duration, and individual susceptibility remain unresolved.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, an investigational compound developed in the 1990s for metabolic conditions. It acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. The compound is frequently mislabeled as a selective androgen receptor modulator, or SARM, but its molecular target is different. GW501516 reached early clinical testing before development was discontinued. It has no approved therapeutic use in any country. The name cardarine is not a formal international nonproprietary name.
A persistent misconception is that cardarine is a fat-burning drug or a safe alternative to anabolic steroids. No approved therapeutic product exists, and human safety data are limited. The tumor findings in rodents remain a central concern in scientific reviews. Products sold online may contain inaccurate labels, impurities, or different compounds entirely, which complicates any assessment of effects. Independent testing of such products has reported frequent mislabeling. For these reasons, discussions in the literature emphasize risks and unknowns rather than benefits.
Cardarine is not approved for human therapeutic use in any major jurisdiction. It appears on the World Anti-Doping Agency Prohibited List as a PPARδ agonist within the hormone and metabolic modulators category. Sports organizations test for it because it has been detected in athlete samples and seized products. Regulatory actions against marketed research chemical versions have occurred in several countries, though enforcement varies. Availability through unregulated channels complicates oversight.
Analytical laboratories typically identify cardarine and its metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is a common matrix in anti-doping testing, while blood and tissue may be used in research settings. Detection windows depend on the assay, the sample matrix, and the compound's metabolism. Because cardarine is extensively metabolized, laboratories often target specific metabolites to improve sensitivity and confirmation. Reference standards are required for reliable quantification. Method validation includes checks for selectivity, linearity, and carryover.
Regulatory treatment of cardarine differs by context and jurisdiction. In competitive sport, the World Anti-Doping Agency lists PPARδ agonists, including GW501516, as prohibited at all times. Outside sport, it lacks approval as a prescription medicine in major drug markets, and products sold for human consumption may be treated as unapproved drugs. Some countries also restrict importation or sale through general consumer protection and medicines laws. These classifications affect availability, testing, and legal risk without establishing therapeutic value.
Because cardarine is not an approved medicine, no pharmacopeial monograph defines its identity, purity, or storage requirements. Laboratories typically rely on in-house methods and reference standards when testing materials labeled as GW501516. Certificates of analysis may report purity and identity for a specific batch, but their scope varies and they do not guarantee safety or legal status. Independent verification can include high-performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance, and elemental analysis. The distinction between research chemical labeling and human use is significant because quality standards and oversight differ.
Cardarine can be detected in biological samples and product materials using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The method separates compounds by chromatography and identifies them by mass-to-charge transitions, allowing low-level detection in urine or blood. Sample preparation often involves enzymatic hydrolysis, solid-phase extraction, or protein precipitation. Certified reference materials and isotope-labeled internal standards improve quantification. Detection windows depend on metabolism, matrix, and assay sensitivity, so no single universal window applies.
In 2013, Wolk was offered the position of Director of Clinical Microbiology in the Geisinger Health System, where she was honored by the American Society for Microbiology for her efforts to improve patient care and medical outcomes using microbiology. Wolk demonstrated that mass spectrometry could be used to differentiate biomarkers of anti-microbial resistance as well as in the diagnosis of bacteria and yeasts.
Before the 18th century, chemists generally believed that compounds obtained from living organisms were endowed with a vital force that distinguished them from inorganic compounds. According to the concept of vitalism (vital force theory), organic matter was endowed with a "vital force". During the first half of the nineteenth century, some of the first systematic studies of organic compounds were reported. Around 1816 Michel Chevreul started a study of soaps made from various fats and alkalis. He separated the acids that, in combination with the alkali, produced the soap. Since these were all individual compounds, he demonstrated that it was possible to make a chemical change in various fats (which traditionally come from organic sources), producing new compounds, without "vital force". In 1828 Friedrich Wöhler produced the organic chemical urea (carbamide), a constituent of urine, from inorganic starting materials (the salts potassium cyanate and ammonium sulfate), in what is now called the Wöhler synthesis. Although Wöhler himself was cautious about claiming he had disproved vitalism, this was the first time a substance thought to be organic was synthesized in the laboratory without biological (organic) starting materials. The event is now generally accepted as indeed disproving the doctrine of vitalism. After Wöhler, Justus von Liebig worked on the organization of organic chemistry, being considered one of its principal founders. In 1856, William Henry Perkin, while trying to manufacture quinine, accidentally produced the organic dye now known as Perkin's mauve.
The best-known role of proteins in the cell is as enzymes, which catalyse chemical reactions. Enzymes are usually highly specific and accelerate only one or a few chemical reactions. Enzymes carry out most of the reactions involved in metabolism, as well as manipulating DNA in processes such as DNA replication, DNA repair, and transcription. Some enzymes act on other proteins to add or remove chemical groups in a process known as posttranslational modification. About 4,000 reactions are known to be catalysed by enzymes. The rate acceleration conferred by enzymatic catalysis is often enormous—as much as 1017-fold increase in rate over the uncatalysed reaction in the case of orotate decarboxylase (78 million years without the enzyme, 18 milliseconds with the enzyme). The molecules bound and acted upon by enzymes are called substrates. Although enzymes can consist of hundreds of amino acids, it is usually only a small fraction of the residues that come in contact with the substrate, and an even smaller fraction—three to four residues on average—that are directly involved in catalysis. The region of the enzyme that binds the substrate and contains the catalytic residues is known as the active site. Dirigent proteins are members of a class of proteins that dictate the stereochemistry of a compound synthesized by other enzymes.
Afonsoconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym of Conus (Afonsoconus) Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Africonus Petuch, 1975: synonym of Conus (Lautoconus) Monterosato, 1923 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Arubaconus Petuch, 2013: synonym of Conus (Ductoconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Asprella Schaufuss, 1869: synonym of Conus (Asprella) Schaufuss, 1869 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Atlanticonus Petuch & Sargent, 2012: synonym of Conus (Atlanticonus) Petuch & Sargent, 2012 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Attenuiconus Petuch, 2013: synonym of Conus (Attenuiconus) Petuch, 2013 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Austroconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 synonym of Conus (Austroconus) Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Bathyconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conasprella (Fusiconus) Thiele, 1929, represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Bermudaconus Petuch, 2013: synonym of Conus (Bermudaconus) Petuch, 2013 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Boucheticonus Tucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym of Conasprella (Boucheticonus) Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Brasiliconus Petuch, 2013: synonym of Conus (Brasiliconus) Petuch, 2013 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Calamiconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conus (Lividoconus) Wils, 1970 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Calibanus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Calibanus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Cariboconus Petuch, 2003: synonym of Conus (Dauciconus) Cotton, 1945 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Californiconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 Chelyconus Mörch, 1852: synonym of Conus (Chelyconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Cleobula Iredale, 1930: synonym of Dendroconus Swainson, 1840 Coltroconus Petuch, 2013: synonym of Conasprella (Coltroconus) Petuch, 2013 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Conasprella Thiele, 1929: accepted name Conasprelloides Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conus (Dauciconus) Cotton, 1945 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 † Conilithes Swainson, 1840 Continuconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 Conus Linnaeus, 1758: accepted name Cornutoconus Suzuki, 1972: synonym of Taranteconus Azuma, 1972 Coronaxis Swainson, 1840: synonym of Conus (Conus) Linnaeus, 1758 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Cucullus Röding, 1798: synonym of Conus (Conus) Linnaeus, 1758 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Cylinder Montfort, 1810: synonym of Conus (Cylinder) Montfort, 1810 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Cylindrella Swainson, 1840: synonym of Asprella Schaufuss, 1869synonym of Conus (Asprella) Schaufuss, 1869 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Cylindrus Batsch, 1789: synonym of Cylinder Montfort, 1810synonym of Conus (Cylinder) Montfort, 1810 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Dalliconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conasprella (Dalliconus) Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 synonym of Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Darioconus Iredale, 1930: synonym of Conus (Darioconus) Iredale, 1930 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Dauciconus Cotton, 1945: synonym of Conus (Dauciconus) Cotton, 1945 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Dendroconus Swainson, 1840: synonym of Conus (Dendroconus) Swainson, 1840 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Ductoconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Ductoconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Duodenticonus Tucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym of Conasprella (Conasprella) Thiele, 1929 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Dyraspis Iredale, 1949: synonym of Conus (Virroconus) Iredale, 1930 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Elisaconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym of Conus (Elisaconus) Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Embrikena Iredale, 1937: synonym of Conus (Embrikena) Iredale, 1937 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Endemoconus Iredale, 1931: synonym of Conasprella (Endemoconus) Iredale, 1931 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Eremiconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conus (Eremiconus) Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Erythroconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Darioconus) Iredale, 1930 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Eugeniconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Eugeniconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Floraconus Iredale, 1930: synonym of Conus (Floraconus) Iredale, 1930 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Fraterconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym of Conus (Fraterconus) Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Fulgiconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Phasmoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Fumiconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conasprella (Fusiconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Fusiconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conasprella (Fusiconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Gastridium Modeer, 1793: synonym of Conus (Gastridium) Modeer, 1793 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Genuanoconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conus (Kalloconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Gladioconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conus (Monteiroconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Globiconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conasprella (Ximeniconus) Emerson & Old, 1962 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Gradiconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Dauciconus) Cotton, 1945 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Graphiconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Phasmoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Harmoniconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Harmoniconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Hermes Montfort, 1810: synonym of Conus (Hermes) Montfort, 1810 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Heroconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Pionoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Isoconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym of Conus (Splinoconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Jaspidiconus Petuch, 2004: synonym of Conasprella (Ximeniconus) Emerson & Old, 1962 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Kalloconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Kalloconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Kellyconus Petuch, 2013: synonym of Conus (Kellyconus) Petuch, 2013 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Kenyonia Brazier, 1896: genus incertae sedis Kermasprella Powell, 1958: synonym of Conasprella (Endemoconus) Iredale, 1931 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Ketyconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Floraconus) Iredale, 1930 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Kioconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Splinoconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Klemaeconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym of Conus (Klemaeconus) Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Kohniconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conasprella (Kohniconus) Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Kurodaconus Shikama & Habe, 1968: synonym of Conus (Turriconus) Shikama & Habe, 1968 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Lamniconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Lamniconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Lautoconus Monterosato, 1923: synonym of Conus (Lautoconus) Monterosato, 1923 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Leporiconus Iredale, 1930: synonym of Conus (Leporiconus) Iredale, 1930 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Leptoconus Swainson, 1840: synonym of Conus (Leptoconus) Swainson, 1840 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Lilliconus Raybaudi Massilia, 1994: synonym of Conasprella (Lilliconus) G. Raybaudi Massilia, 1994 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Lindaconus Petuch, 2002: synonym of Conus (Lindaconus) Petuch, 2002 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Lithoconus Mörch, 1852: synonym of Conus (Lithoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Lividoconus Wils, 1970: synonym of Conus (Lividoconus) Wils, 1970 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Lizaconus da Motta, 1991synonym of Profundiconus Kuroda, 1956 Magelliconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Dauciconus) Cotton, 1945 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Malagasyconus Monnier & Tenorio, 2015 Mamiconus Cotton & Godfrey, 1932: synonym of Endemoconus Iredale, 1931synonym of Conasprella (Endemoconus) Iredale, 1931 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Miliariconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conus (Virroconus) Iredale, 1930 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Mitraconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym of Conus (Turriconus) Shikama & Habe, 1968 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Monteiroconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Monteiroconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Nataliconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conus (Leptoconus) Swainson, 1840 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Nimboconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym of Conus (Phasmoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Nitidoconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym of Conus (Splinoconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Ongoconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Splinoconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Papyriconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym of Conus (Papyriconus) Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Parviconus Cotton & Godfrey, 1932: synonym of Conasprella (Parviconus) Cotton & Godfrey, 1932 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Perplexiconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conasprella (Ximeniconus) Emerson & Old, 1962 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Phasmoconus Mörch, 1852: synonym of Conus (Phasmoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Pionoconus Mörch, 1852: synonym of Conus (Pionoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Plicaustraconus Moolenbeek, 2008: synonym of Conus (Plicaustraconus) Moolenbeek, 2008 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Poremskiconus Petuch, 2013: synonym of Conus (Dauciconus) Cotton, 1945 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Profundiconus Kuroda, 1956: accepted name Protoconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Tenorioconus Petuch & Drolshagen, 2011 Protostrioconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conus (Gastridium) Modeer, 1793 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Pseudoconorbis Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conasprella (Pseudoconorbis) Tucker & Tenorio, 2009, represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Pseudohermes Tucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym of Conus (Virgiconus) Cotton, 1945 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Pseudolilliconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conus (Pseudolilliconus) Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Pseudonoduloconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conus (Pseudonoduloconus) Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Pseudopterygia Tucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym of Conus (Pseudopterygia) Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Puncticulis Swainson, 1840: synonym of Conus (Puncticulis) Swainson, 1840 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Purpuriconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Dauciconus) Cotton, 1945 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Pygmaeconus Puillandre & Tenorio, 2017 Pyruconus Olsson, 1967: synonym of Conus (Pyruconus) Olsson, 1967 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Quasiconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conus (Quasiconus) Tucker & Tenorio, 2009 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Regiconus Iredale, 1930: synonym of Conus (Darioconus) Iredale, 1930 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Rhizoconus Mörch, 1852: synonym of Conus (Rhizoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Rhombiconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conus (Stephanoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Rhombus Montfort, 1810: synonym of Rhombiconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009, synonym of Conus (Stephanoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Rolaniconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conus (Strategoconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Rollus Montfort, 1810 :synonym of Conus (Gastridium) Modeer, 1793 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Rubroconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym of Conus (Rubroconus) Tucker & Tenorio, 2013 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Sandericonus Petuch, 2013: synonym of Conus (Sandericonus) Petuch, 2013 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Sciteconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Sciteconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Seminoleconus Petuch, 2003: synonym of Conus (Stephanoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Socioconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Pionoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Splinoconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Splinoconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Spuriconus Petuch, 2003: synonym of Conus (Lindaconus) Petuch, 2002 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Stellaconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conus (Splinoconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Stephanoconus Mörch, 1852: synonym of Conus (Stephanoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Strategoconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Strategoconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Strioconus Thiele, 1929: synonym of Pionoconus Mörch, 1852, synonym of Conus (Pionoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Sulciconus Bielz, 1869: synonym of Asprella Schaufuss, 1869, synonym of Conus (Asprella) Schaufuss, 1869 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Taranteconus Azuma, 1972: synonym of Conus (Stephanoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Tenorioconus Petuch & Drolshagen, 2011: synonym of Conus (Stephanoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Tesselliconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Tesselliconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Textilia Swainson, 1840: synonym of Conus (Textilia) Swainson, 1840 represented Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Thalassiconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2013: synonym of Calibanus da Motta, 1991, synonym of Conus (Calibanus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Theliconus Swainson, 1840: synonym of Hermes Montfort, 1810, synonym of Conus (Hermes) Montfort, 1810 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Thoraconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Fulgiconus da Motta, 1991, synonym of Conus (Phasmoconus) Mörch, 1852 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Trovaoconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009, synonym of Conus (Kalloconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Tuckericonus Petuch, 2013: synonym of Conus (Dauciconus) Cotton, 1945 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Tuliparia Swainson, 1840: synonym of Gastridium Modeer, 1793, synonym of Conus (Gastridium) Modeer, 1793 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Turriconus Shikama & Habe, 1968, synonym of Conus (Turriconus) Shikama & Habe, 1968 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Utriculus Schumacher, 1817: synonym of Gastridium Modeer, 1793, synonym of Conus (Gastridium) Modeer, 1793 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Varioconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Lautoconus) Monterosato, 1923 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Viminiconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conasprella (Fusiconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Virgiconus Cotton, 1945: synonym of Conus (Virgiconus) Cotton, 1945 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Virroconus Iredale, 1930: synonym of Conus (Virroconus) Iredale, 1930 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Vituliconus da Motta, 1991: synonym of Conus (Strategoconus) da Motta, 1991 represented as Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Ximeniconus Emerson & Old, 1962: synonym of Conasprella (Ximeniconus) Emerson & Old, 1962 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Yeddoconus Tucker & Tenorio, 2009: synonym of Conasprella (Endemoconus) Iredale, 1931 represented as Conasprella Thiele, 1929
Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (buffer) Sodium chloride (salt) Sucrose (sugar) Magnesium chloride hexahydrate Disodium EDTA dihydrate (a chelation ligand; sequestrant) Polysorbate 80 Ethanol 95% Water No adjuvants and no other components or ingredients should be included in the vaccine.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Procedures === Section 316 of the Criminal Procedure Code states that the death penalty in Singapore is to be conducted by hanging. Judicial hangings always take place shortly before dawn on a Friday and are conducted by the long drop method. The Singapore government has affirmed its choice of execution by hanging in favour of other methods. It is a normal practice for everyone present in the courtroom to stand and remain silent before the death sentence is passed. The judge will then proceed to announce the death sentence on the accused, who has been found guilty and convicted of the capital offence. The condemned will be given notice at least four days before execution. In the case of foreigners sentenced to death, their families and diplomatic missions or embassies will be given one to two weeks' notice.
== Litigation == On September 7, 2018, the SEC filed a lawsuit against a number of individuals and entities including Opko Health and the CEO and chairman, Phillip Frost. In December 2018, the company and Dr. Frost entered into settlements with the SEC, which, upon approval by the court in January 2019, resolved the claims. Without admitting or denying any of the allegations, the company agreed to an injunction from violations of Section 13(d) of the “Exchange Act”, a strict liability claim, and to pay a $100,000 penalty, which has been paid. On March 8, 2019, the SEC filed an amended complaint, with OPKO paying US$100,000 "Without admitting or denying the SEC's allegations."
An initial success was achieved when medicinal chemists set out in search of the ideal SSRI with the chemical synthesis of zimelidine (figure 1) from the antihistamine drug brompheniramine, which exhibited selective inhibition of 5-HT re-uptake with minimal inhibition of norepinephrine (NE) re-uptake. Most importantly, zimelidine did not come with the adverse effect profile as the TCAs and therefore it became the template for the second generation SSRIs. Zimelidine was the first SSRI to be marketed, but several cases of Guillain–Barré syndrome were associated with the use of the drug which led to withdrawal from the market in 1983. Subsequently, several non-tricyclic SSRIs were discovered and marketed. Fluoxetine, which was FDA approved in 1987, is usually thought to be the first SSRI to be marketed. The work which eventually led to the discovery of fluoxetine began at Eli Lilly and Company in 1970 as a collaboration between Bryan Molloy and Ray Fuller. It was known at that time that the antihistamine diphenhydramine showed some antidepressant-like properties. 3-Phenoxy-3-phenylpropylamine, a compound structurally similar to diphenhydramine, was taken as a starting point. Molloy and fellow Eli Lilly chemist Klaus Schmiegel synthesized a series of dozens of its derivatives. Hoping to find a derivative inhibiting only serotonin reuptake, another Eli Lilly scientist, David T. Wong, proposed to retest the series for the in vitro reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine, using a technique developed by neuroscientist Solomon Snyder.
==== Debate ==== Some question if patent waiver proposals formulated for small molecule drugs can be applied to complex biologics like vaccines. One vaccine production expert argued that "there is an unrecognized gap in understanding ... nearly all of the people who are providing views on the value of removing patent protections have zero experience in vaccine development and manufacturing." Indeed, most of the advocacy in favor of patent waivers has come from the public health community (which has drawn inspiration from the history of raucous HIV/AIDS activism in the 1980s and 1990s), while most members of the vaccinology community (i.e., actual experts on development and production of vaccines) have effectively refused to lend their credibility to such proposals by either remaining silent or refusing to take any position. Small molecule drugs are easy to copy and can be quickly brought to market by generic drug manufacturers who are not required to run their own full-scale clinical trials because they can piggyback on regulatory approvals obtained by original drug manufacturers. In contrast, "there is no such thing as generic vaccines". The manufacturer of each independently developed vaccine (including a purported copy of an existing vaccine) must run its own clinical trials to establish safety and efficacy. Independent copying of an existing first-generation vaccine is so hard that the resulting second-generation vaccine is often a significant improvement over the first-generation technology and is itself patentable.
=== Positive effects === As the public becomes more aware of the stereotypical nature of mental illness depictions, there is an increasing number of studies being done to examine how media messages can positively affect audiences by decreasing stigma. Research has found that news stories are much more likely to produce positive audience comments and reactions if they use counter-stigmatism in their storytelling rather than stereotypes and discriminatory language. In a more specific sense, media portraying a realistic account of mental illness can give medical professionals a glimpse into the life and realities of living with such an illness. The research regarding the educational aspects of the film for nurse students from all fields suggested that the films of different genres, including life stories, adventures, and others, provided practical insights into understanding the patient experience and perspectives in different environments. Another research also found the positive aspects of the movies for educational purposes on students in medical (clinical) fields. The films provide valuable lessons for individuals in understanding the specific cases and appropriate treatment plans for patients. Even though there are some concerns that movies are not intended for educational purposes but for entertainment, researchers suggest that films provide positive outcomes in students' learning experiences.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Outreach === Nigam is a trained STEM Ambassador and delivers lessons on microbiology and entomology to pupils at local schools. She participated in the 2014 Soapbox Science public engagement event in Swansea. Nigam works to change the Welsh school curriculum in order to promote gender equality in STEM.
=== Minerals === At the bottom of the chain, minerals were unable to move, sense, grow, or reproduce. Their attributes were being solid and strong, while the gemstones possessed magic. The king of gems was the diamond.
==== Interferon production and signal transduction inhibition ==== The virus prevents the stimulation of type 1 IFN production and subsequent cell apoptosis in response to virus infection by inhibiting the activation of IRF-3. Two virus proteins: C and V are mainly involved in this process. SeV can attenuate cell defense mechanisms and allow itself to escape from host innate immunity by inhibiting the interferon response pathway in addition to inhibiting the interferon production. The table below demonstrates the inhibition mechanism.
Renal pathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology that deals with the diagnosis and characterization of disease of the kidneys. In a medical setting, renal pathologists work closely with nephrologists and transplant surgeons, who typically obtain diagnostic specimens via percutaneous renal biopsy. The renal pathologist must synthesize findings from traditional microscope histology, electron microscopy, and immunofluorescence to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Medical renal diseases may affect the glomerulus, the tubules and interstitium, the vessels, or a combination of these compartments.
=== Design for affinity === Protein–protein interactions are involved in most biotic processes. Many of the hardest-to-treat diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, many forms of cancer (e.g., TP53), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection involve protein–protein interactions. Thus, to treat such diseases, it is desirable to design protein or protein-like therapeutics that bind one of the partners of the interaction and, thus, disrupt the disease-causing interaction. This requires designing protein-therapeutics for affinity toward its partner. Protein–protein interactions can be designed using protein design algorithms because the principles that rule protein stability also rule protein–protein binding. Protein–protein interaction design, however, presents challenges not commonly present in protein design. One of the most important challenges is that, in general, the interfaces between proteins are more polar than protein cores, and binding involves a tradeoff between desolvation and hydrogen bond formation. To overcome this challenge, Bruce Tidor and coworkers developed a method to improve the affinity of antibodies by focusing on electrostatic contributions. They found that, for the antibodies designed in the study, reducing the desolvation costs of the residues in the interface increased the affinity of the binding pair.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
LC-MS/MS is common, often after sample cleanup. The assay targets GW501516 or its metabolites.
Reference material is usually kept cold, dry, and protected from light. Frozen aliquots reduce repeated freeze-thaw cycles.
No approved pharmaceutical product exists, so manufacturing and quality controls are not standardized. Products may contain different compounds or impurities.
Rodent studies reported increased endurance and fat oxidation after GW501516 exposure. Long-term studies also found higher rates of some tumors, which led to halted development.