A practical reference on Anti-doping: what it is, how it behaves, what the literature reports, and where the honest uncertainties sit.
Reviewed 2025-09-12. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Safety discussions about cardarine frequently cite rodent carcinogenicity findings reported in the 2000s. In those studies, treated animals developed tumors at multiple sites, leading sponsors to discontinue clinical development. The relevance of these findings to humans has not been resolved, but they are a major reason the compound is not approved. Current literature emphasizes uncertainty about long-term effects and the risks of unregulated use. Regulators and health agencies have not established a safe human exposure level.
Cardarine is a synthetic compound also known as GW501516, GW-501516, and sometimes endurobol. It was developed as a selective agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not become a marketed human medicine. In regulatory and anti-doping contexts, it is treated as a prohibited substance rather than a licensed medicine.
Regulatory bodies treat GW501516 as a prohibited substance in competitive sport. The World Anti-Doping Agency added it to the prohibited list, and it falls under classes covering metabolic modulators and hormone-related agents. It is not approved by drug regulators for human use, and it is not a lawful dietary supplement. Products sold under the cardarine name may contain unlisted ingredients or different compounds. Because no approved product exists, quality and identity are not guaranteed by pharmaceutical manufacturing standards.
Cardarine is a common name for the investigational chemical GW501516, also written GW-1516. It was developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonist for metabolic conditions such as dyslipidemia. Early research focused on lipid handling and energy use in skeletal muscle and other tissues. The compound was never approved as a medicine. In public discussion, it is often grouped with performance-enhancing substances, although its receptor target differs from that of anabolic steroids or selective androgen receptor modulators. Regulatory and health authorities have issued warnings about its use.
GW501516 acts on PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that helps regulate fatty acid oxidation and energy homeostasis. In animal studies, activation of this receptor was associated with increased endurance and changes in lipid metabolism. Human trials examined effects on blood lipids and other metabolic markers, but the compound did not advance to approval. Rodent studies later reported tumors in multiple tissues at doses used in those experiments. Whether those findings translate to human risk remains uncertain, and the clinical relevance of the animal data is still debated.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common synonyms | GW501516, GW-501516, GW 501516, endurobol | Names vary in research and anti-doping documents. |
| Chemical class | Synthetic PPARδ agonist | Small-molecule nuclear receptor ligand. |
| CAS Registry Number | 317318-70-0 | Identifier commonly associated with GW501516. |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical for purified research material. |
| Solubility | Low in water; soluble in DMSO and ethanol | Organic solvents are common for laboratory stock solutions. |
Anti-doping laboratories detect GW501516 and its metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the most common matrix, though blood and dried blood spots may also be used in some programs. Detection depends on factors such as dose, timing, metabolism, and the sensitivity of the assay. Published methods describe limits of detection in the low nanogram per milliliter range for related compounds. Exact detection windows are not fixed for all situations and remain an area of ongoing study.
Products sold as cardarine have been found to contain incorrect compounds, variable amounts, or no active ingredient at all. Independent testing is required to verify identity and purity. Common analytical approaches include high-performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance for structural confirmation. These methods can distinguish GW501516 from related PPAR agonists and from unrelated steroids. For regulators and researchers, such verification is central to interpreting both biological results and adverse event reports.
Cardarine is prohibited in competitive sport under the World Anti-Doping Agency code, where it is classified as a metabolic modulator. It is not approved as a prescription medicine in the United States, European Union, or other major markets. Regulatory action has focused on its presence in sports and in products marketed as research chemicals. Because it has no accepted medical indication, supply is often unregulated. This status creates legal and safety uncertainties for anyone who encounters the substance.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, also GW-1516, a synthetic compound developed as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARδ) agonist. It belongs to a class of agents that modulate gene transcription related to lipid and energy metabolism. The compound was studied in preclinical and early clinical research for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it did not progress to approved therapeutic use. Its name appears in fitness and sports contexts despite not being approved as a drug.
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that influences transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, lipid transport, and energy homeostasis. GW501516 binds and activates this receptor with high selectivity relative to PPARα and PPARγ in laboratory assays. Activation alters expression of target genes in skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue in animal models. The exact clinical consequences of these changes in humans remain incompletely characterized, and observed effects in animals do not establish therapeutic benefit or safety.
Anti-doping laboratories identify GW501516 and related metabolites using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the most common matrix, though blood and dried blood spots may also be analyzed. The method targets the parent compound and phase I and phase II metabolites, which extend the detection window. Because the substance is prohibited at all times, athletes can be tested outside competition. Detection limits and windows depend on the assay, sample type, and individual metabolism.
Cardarine is frequently described as a fat-burning or endurance-enhancing supplement, but these claims exceed the available evidence. The compound is not a hormone, steroid, or selective androgen receptor modulator. Research articles discuss it as a tool compound for studying PPARδ biology, while anti-doping literature focuses on its abuse and detection. Quality of unapproved products is uncertain, and independent analyses have found impurities or incorrect labeling. Open questions include whether human cancer risk resembles that seen in rodents and how often non-athletes use the substance.
Cardarine has no approved therapeutic indication and is not marketed as a medicine. The World Anti-Doping Agency lists GW501516 as a prohibited substance at all times, covering both in-competition and out-of-competition periods. National laws vary: some countries treat it as an unapproved drug subject to import controls, while others have specific restrictions on sale for human consumption. It is often sold as a research chemical, a label that does not imply safety or legality. Enforcement actions have targeted online vendors and shipments.
== Awards == The society sponsors several awards including the Curt Brunnée Award for achievements in instrumentation by a scientist under 45 years of age, the Thomson Medal Award for achievements in mass spectrometry, as well as travel awards and student paper awards:
He also places a massive £300 million long position on pound sterling, gambling that a rumored UK tax cut will raise the value of the pound. When the tax cut is realised, it has the opposite effect, putting Rishi at risk of booking millions in losses. After a disastrous casino binge, Diana agrees to cover his debts—only for Rishi’s long position to suddenly net £18 million when the tax cut is reversed alongside a significant increase in the pound interest rate. this success, however, prompts him to immediately take out another gambling loan. When Pierpoint’s stock collapses on its 150th anniversary, Rishi correctly deduces an acquisition after spotting the Barclays CEO enter the building. He interviews with Harper for a hedge fund role, only find that the job offer is a sham designed to humiliate him in front of Sweetpea and Anraj, who she has hired. On Rishi's birthday, Vinay tells Diana about Rishi’s debts and murders her in front of him, leaving Rishi traumatized. In series 4, Rishi is without a job, as he is unable to clear even basic background checks due to his wife's murder, and is revealed to have attempted suicide while living in a motel and abusing prescription drugs. Harper, who paid for his stay in rehab, gives him cash payments to surreptitiously obtain information that would aid her in shorting companies. Harper later cuts ties with Rishi after hiring Sweetpea, who is repulsed by him and refuses to work with Harper if he is involved.
=== Allergens === Both centipede bites and centipede-containing medicine can cause allergic reactions, yet no natural centipede allergen has been characterized and officially identified until 2021. The novel allergen found in S. mutilans, Sco m 5, was the first natural centipede allergen to be identified and characterized by Lan et al. It was found that Sco m 5 can promote the degranulation of mast cells (i.e. degranulation of mast cells is associated with edema at the respiratory tract). Centipedes used in clinical practice are required to be boiled before administration, and it is whether to keep or discard the head of centipedes in medical uses remained controversial, as the head contains the venom glands.
==== 2021: Torn Achilles tendon ==== McCormick did not participate in spring football during his recovery in 2021, though he was cleared to return to practice in July of that year. He participated in the 2021 Oregon Ducks football season opener against the Fresno State Bulldogs, seeing action on special teams. He also played and was named the starter during the Ducks' game against the Ohio State Buckeyes, though he exited the game during the second quarter after suffering a torn Achilles tendon in his right foot, a season-ending injury.
== Pre-Proto-Hassuna == More recently, the concept of a very early 'Pre-Proto-Hassuna' pottery tradition has been introduced by some scholars. This has been prompted by more recent discoveries of still earlier pottery traditions. Pre-Proto-Hassuna refers to the Late Neolithic period in Upper Mesopotamia when the ceramic containers were just being introduced. The pottery vessels were still very few in number in these early settlements. At that time, the main emphasis was on the pottery with a mineral temper, as opposed to the plant-tempered pottery which came to predominate later. The time frame for this period was about 7000-6700 BC, and at this time stone vessels and White Ware were still being used in addition to pottery. Because of the narrow local emphasis in many pottery studies as of now, these earliest pottery traditions may be known in literature as:
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Toxicity == Studies of the acute and chronic toxicity of lithium ascorbate have shown that lithium ascorbate is characterized by an extremely low acute and chronic toxicity. In acute toxicity studies with a single dose of 3000 mg/kg of lithium ascorbate, mortality was 0%, no pathological changes were found, as well as signs of local irritant action. At 4000 mg/kg, mortality (delayed) was 20%. Intoxication in males was manifested as oppression, diarrhea, ruffled hair, bloody discharge from the nose and eyes, in females - diarrhea. Pathological changes included plethora of the meninges, edema and plethora of the lungs, hemorrhages in the lungs. For Wistar rats LD50 of lithium ascorbate was 6334 mg/kg of body weight, and LD100 was 8000 mg/kg. Thus, lithium ascorbate can be classified as class 5 "practically non-toxic compounds" (LD50> 5000 mg/kg). Compared with lithium carbonate (LD50 = 531 mg/kg), lithium ascorbate is 12 times less toxic. It is known that the anion, which forms a lithium salt, is one of the most significant factors affecting the toxicity of the salt. For example, for rats, the LD50 of lithium chloride when administered orally is 1530 mg/kg, and when administered intraperitoneally it is 925 mg/kg. For rabbits, the LD50 of the same salt is 775 mg/kg orally. The greatest acute toxicity was established for lithium fluoride (LD50=175 mg/kg, for mice), while bromide, nicotinate, oxybutyrate are much less toxic (LD50 for mice - 2200 mg/kg).
Due to the effect pH has on absorption, amphetamine also interacts with gastric acid reducers such as proton pump inhibitors and H2 antihistamines, which increase gastrointestinal pH (i.e., make it less acidic).
=== Chemical and molecular properties === A neutral atom has the same number of electrons as protons. Thus different isotopes of a given element all have the same number of electrons and share a similar electronic structure. Because the chemical behaviour of an atom is largely determined by its electronic structure, different isotopes exhibit nearly identical chemical behaviour. The main exception to this is the kinetic isotope effect: due to their larger masses, heavier isotopes tend to react somewhat more slowly than lighter isotopes of the same element. This is most pronounced by far for protium (1H), deuterium (2H), and tritium (3H), because deuterium has twice the mass of protium and tritium has three times the mass of protium. These mass differences also affect the behavior of their respective chemical bonds, by changing the center of gravity (reduced mass) of the atomic systems. However, for heavier elements, the relative mass difference between isotopes is much less so that the mass-difference effects on chemistry are usually negligible. (Heavy elements also have relatively more neutrons than lighter elements, so the ratio of the nuclear mass to the collective electronic mass is slightly greater.) There is also an equilibrium isotope effect.
== Pharmacodynamics == Levonantradol is a full CB1 receptor agonist. Cannabinoid receptors belong to the superfamily of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), and endogenous cannabinoids naturally activate GPCRs. GPCRs modulate the inhibition of adenylyl cyclase and accumulation of the second messenger, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). The CB1 receptor is the most common GPCR in the central nervous system. The activation of CB1Rs decrease calcium conductance and increase potassium conductance in the brain. CB signaling naturally modulates synaptic transmission and mediates psychoactivity, and synthetic cannabinoids mimic these same actions. Although the efficacy of Levonantradol is dependent on the level of GCPR activity, Full agonists like Levonantradol have the ability to activate GPCRs and convert Gα into a high affinity state for GTP or low affinity state for GDP. Previous studies suggest that Levonantradol has a higher binding affinity and efficacy than other similar synthetic cannabinoids (e.g. Δ9-THC).
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Cardarine is an investigational synthetic compound that acts as a PPARδ agonist. It is also known as GW501516 and has been studied mainly in preclinical research. It is not an approved medicine.
No. Cardarine is not a steroid hormone; it targets the nuclear receptor PPARδ. Its classification in anti-doping rules differs from anabolic steroids, though it remains prohibited in sport.
Early rodent studies reported tumor formation at multiple sites, which raised safety concerns. Sponsors stopped clinical development, and no approved human product exists.
No. Cardarine is a PPARδ agonist, while selective androgen receptor modulators act on androgen receptors. The two classes differ in receptor target and downstream effects.